Classroom+Notes


 * __INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY__**

__Assignment: Read Section 1.1__ __Vocabulary__

Chemistry:

Substance:

__Assignment: Read Section 1.2__ __Vocabulary__

Mass

Weight

__Assignment: Read Section 1.3__ __Vocabulary__

Control

Dependent variable

Independent variable

Hypothesis

Qualitative Data

Quantitative Data

Scientific law

Theory

__Assignment Read Section 1.4__ __Vocabulary__

Pure research

Applied research

__LAB SAFETY__ Safety Rules on p. 19 Table 1.2

__Activities__ Icebreaker (Theory, Substance, Mixture, Metric prefix and meaning, Something in common)

__CHEMLAB__ Identify the Water Source

__Assignment__ ___Discussion Assignment: Visit our Wiki at http://honorschemistrycyhs.wikispaces.com/

Pick out an article under the article tab from the selections __posted on the board.__ Read one and post a commentary on it under your name on our wiki. See the rubric presented below.

See below for the discussion post rubric.*

__*Post and Response Rubric__


 * 5 ||  4  ||  3  ||  2  ||  1  ||  0  ||
 * Posts are insightful and show a good comprehension of the content. || Posts are insightful and show a fair comprehension of the content. || Posts are insightful and show a minimum comprehension of the content. || Posts are not insightful and show a minimum comprehension of the content. || Posts are not insightful and show no comprehension of the content. || Posts are not done. ||
 * Posts and responses are done on time. || Posts and responses are one day late. || Posts and responses are two days late. || Posts and responses are three days late. || Posts and responses are more than three days late. || Posts and responses are not done. ||
 * Responses are insightful and show a good comprehension of the content. || Responses are insightful and show a fair comprehension of the content. || Responses are insightful and show a minimum comprehension of the content. || Responses are not insightful and show a minimum comprehension of the content. || Responses are not insightful and show no comprehension of the content. || Responses are not done. ||
 * Posts and responses are minimum of 75 words. || Posts and responses are minimum of 75 words. || Posts and responses are more than 25 words but less than 75. || Posts and responses are less than 25 words. || Posts and responses are less than 10 words. || Posts and responses are not done. ||

__Textbook assignment__ Funsie #1 Quiz #1
 * 31, 32 42, 43, 44, 45 pp 26-27

I

Electrons in Atoms Section #2 Unit #2

Light and Quantized Energy

Wave nature of light (Electromagnetic Spectrum)

Frequency (ν)

Wavelength (λ)

Amplitude

Visible Light 400- 750 nm. Which is red? Which is violet?

c = Speed of Light = 2.998 x 108 m/sec = 2.998 x 1017 nm/sec

c =λ x ν

quantum

photon

photoelectric effect

The energy of each photon of light can be calculated by:

E = hν or E = hc/λ Where h is Planck’s constant.

h = 6.626 x 10-34 J.s/photon

atomic emission spectrum

Classwork: YCP worksheet Properties of Light

Lab: Flame Tests

Read and Post : Article on Motion Detectors

Textbook assignment : Read Section 5.1 Do #’s 5-7 p. 143, #13, 14 p. 145
 * 35, 44, 47-51, 55, 58 p. 166

Quantum Theory and the Atom

Bohr Model

Ground state vs Excited state:

Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom.

The modern day model of the atom uses the concepts of quantum theory to best describe the behavior of electrons. We should not perceive of electrons as orbiting the nucleus like planets around the sun. They behave by a different set of rules.

deBroglie equation:

Heisenburg uncertainty principle

Schrodinger wave equation

To describe thProxy-Connection: keep-alive Cache-Control: max-age=0 energy, behavior and probable location of an electron we assign each one a unique set of 4 quantum numbers. These are designated with the symbols n, l, ml and ms (See below).

Principal quantum number (n) This is the number of the level (ring) of electrons starting from the nucleus and going outward!

n = 1,2,3,4…!

[2n^2= number of electrons on that level!]

1=2! 2=8!  3=18...!

Second (azimuthal) quantum number (l) This designates the shape of the probability cloud!

l = 0, 1, 2…(n-1)! These correspond to the shapes of the probability distributions(wave functions or orbitals). The first 4 l values are often designated s,p,d,f!

L=0(s),1(p),2(d),3(f)! If... n=1 then l=0, n=2 then l=1 etc..! s= sphere shape orbital, p= dumbell shape orbital, etc..!

Third (magnetic ) quantum number, ml. Used to designate the orientation of the orbitals in space.

ml = -l…0…+l

s is always 0! p could be -1,0, Or +1! so on and so forth!

n.s! =K O ! ! ! =

Fourth quantum number, ms. Used to designate the spin of the electron.

ms = +1/2 or - 1/2

Classwork: Worksheets as assigned

Textbook Assignement: Read Section 5.2 Do # 15 p. 155; # 63, 67, 68, 70, 71, 72 p. 167; # 94, 97, 105, 106 p. 168

Electron Configurations, Orbital Diagrams and Abbreviated Electron Configurations

Electrons fill the energy levels from the bottom up.

http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http ://www.celinaschools.org/sci/images/Periodic%2520Table%2520Formulations/pt04a.jpg&imgrefurl= http://www.celinaschools.org/sci/periodic_table_formulations.htm&usg= __FptsNFm17i6jD1ws1-8jFYfGEHE=&h=248&w=410&sz=90&hl=en&start=0&zoom=1&tbnid=9ydiMjmpe6_WEM:&tbnh=122&tbnw=201&ei=Qe9wTZuMC4P6lwecptHKDQ&prev=/images%3Fq%3Ds%2Bblock%2Bp%2Bblock%2Bd%2Bblock%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26safe%3Dactive%26client%3Dsafari%26rls%3Den%26biw%3D1267%26bih%3D611%26tbs%3Disch:1&um=1&itbs=1&iact=hc&vpx=774&vpy=105&dur=2329&hovh=174&hovw=289&tx=109&ty=76&oei=Qe9wTZuMC4P6lwecptHKDQ&page=1&ndsp=17&ved=1t:429,r:3,s:0__

__ Aufbau principle __ __-"Electrons fill from lowest energy levels to the highest energy levels." Quoth Mr. Williams.__ __-There are exceptions: as the energy levels get higher, they can start to overlap.__

__ Pauli exclusion principle __ __-No two electrons in an atom can have the same quantum numbers.__ __-Both electrons spin in opposite directions in each orbital (if two are even present in the orbital).__

__ Hund’s rule __ __-Maximize the number of unpaired electrons (Fill up each orbital in an energy level before pairing them).__ __ Electron-dot structure __ __-Shows number of valence (outer shell) electrons. Valence electron pairs are represented with dots around the atomic symbol.__

__ Valence electrons __ __-Valence electrons are the total electrons in the highest level.__

__ -Oxygen has 6 valence electrons. __

__ Fluorine and Chlorine have the same amount of valence electrons because they are in the same group/ column in the periodic table __

__D's run one behind the period number__ __F's run two behind the period number__ __-ex. 4s 3d 4p__ __6s 4f 5d 6p__ __ DW AS GP __

__ Exceptions to Normal Electron Configurations __

__Filled and half filled sublevels are exceptionally stable.__

__Electron Arrangement in Ions__

__In transition metals, "s" electrons are lost first__

__Cations= Positive__ __Anions= Negative__

__Classwork: Worksheets as assigned.__

__Textbook Assignment: Read Section 5.3 Do #’s 21-24 p. 160; # 29, 30, 33 p. 162; # 81, 86, 87, 88, 112-114 pp 167-169.__

The Periodic Table and Periodic Law

__Periodic__

__Groups or family: Chemistry a set of elements occupying a column in the periodic table and having broadly similar properties arising from their similar electronic structure. __

__ Ex: Alkali metals : any of the elements lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, and francium, occupying Group IA (1) of the periodic table. They are very reactive, electropositive, monovalent metals forming strongly alkaline hydroxides. __

__ Alkaline Earth Metals: any of the elements beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, and radium, occupying Group IIA (2) of the periodic table. They are reactive, electropositive, divalent metals, and form basic oxides that react with water to form comparatively insoluble hydroxides. __ __ Transition metals any of the set of metallic elements occupying a central block (Groups IVB–VIII, IB, and IIB, or 4–12) in the periodic table, e.g., iron, manganese, chromium, and copper. Chemically they show variable valence and a strong tendency to form coordination compounds, and many of their compounds are colored. __

__ Halogens: any of the elements fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine, occupying group VIIA (17) of the periodic table. They are reactive nonmetallic elements that form strongly acidic compounds with hydrogen, from which simple salts can be made. __

__ Noble or inert gases: any of the gaseous elements helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon, occupying Group 0 (18) of the periodic table. They were long believed to be totally unreactive but compounds of xenon, krypton, and radon are now known. __

__ Metalloids : an element (e.g., arsenic, antimony, or tin) whose properties are intermediate between those of metals and solid nonmetals or semiconductors. __

__ Boron, Silicon, Germanium, Arsenic, Antimony and Tellurium. __

__ Periods: a set of elements occupying an entire horizontal **row** in the periodic table. #’s 1- 7. __

__ Rare Earth elements: any of a group of chemically similar metallic elements comprising the lanthanide series and (usually) scandium and yttrium. They are not esp. rare, but they tend to occur together in nature and are difficult to separate from one another. __

__ Actinides: __

__Textbook Assignment: Read Section 6.1 and 6.2 Do #’s 2, 4, 5 p. 181; #12, 13 p. 186; # 29, 30, 31, 32, 33 35, 36, 40, 43, 46, 47, 48 pp198-199.__

__Trends in the Periodic Table__

__Increasing Core Charge__ __ -Core Charge ( Effective Nuclear Charge)= # of protons - the # of core electrons LS __ __ -An increase in positive core charge causes a decrease in the size of the atom as the electrons are drawn closer to the nucleus. __

__Increased Shielding/Screening__ __ -The core electrons push the valence electrons out, so the atoms increase in size LS __ __ -High and tight in the upper right __ __ -Large and loose in the lower left __

__Atomic radius:__ __ -the radius, or distance from the center to the end, of an atom __ __ -measured in picometers (pm) __

__Ionic Radius:__ __ - When electrons are added the ion increases in size __ __ - When electrons are stripped the ion decreases in size __ __ -ionic radius is also measured in picometers (pm) __

__http://boomeria.org/chemlectures/textass2/firstsemass.html__

__Ionization Energy:__ __ -Energy required to remove an electron __ __ 1st I.E. __ __ 2nd I.E. __ __ 3rd I.E __

__ http://www.chemprofessor.com/periodicqm.htm __

__Electronegativity: ( EN) __

__- Measure of the amount of attraction an atom has for electrons in a chemical bond __

__- Highest is F (4.0) __ __ -Lowest Cs (.7) __ __http://mrstinechemistry.wikispaces.com/Covalent+Bonding__

__ LS and VP __

__Textbook Assignment : Read Section 6.3 Do #’s 21,22, 23 p. 194; Do #’s 59-64 p. 199; # 78, 89, 94, 95 pp. 200-201.__

IONIC COMPOUNDS AND METALS

__Ion Formation__

http://www.mpcfaculty.net/mark_bishop/cation_names_formulas.htm
 * __Cation-__** A positively charged ion. It forms when an atom loses one or more valence electrons

__Group I, II, III (1, 2, 13)__ Group 1: turns into 1+ when s1 is lost Group 2: turns into 2+ when s2 is lost Group 3: turns into 3+ when s3 is lost
 * __Metal ions__**- lose valence electrons easily

http://preparatorychemistry.com/Bishop_anion_names_formulas_help.htm
 * __Transition Metal Ions(d block)__** - Form 2+ ions. May cause 3+ ions or greater


 * __Anion__-** An anion is a negatively charged ion. Anions end in -ide


 * __Non-metal Ions__-** Nonmetals gain the number of electrons that when added to their valence electrons equals 8, so they can become a stable octet.

Group 15: Gain three electrons to achieve an octet Group 16: Gain two electrons to achieve an octet Group 17: Gain one electrons to achieve an octet
 * __Group V, VI, VII (15, 16, 17)__**

__**Textbook Assignment: Read Section 7.1 Do #’s 5, 6 p. 209 # 48, 49, 52-55 p. 232**__

Ionic compounds are metal/non-metal
 * __Ionic bonds__** - electrostatic force that holds oppositely charged particles together in an ionic compound

http://www.tutornext.com/help/burning-sodium-chloride
 * __Ex. NaCl__** - Binary compound (Contain only two different elements)

__Note: metal-nonmetal and large difference in electronegativity.__

Physical Structure: Large numbers of positive and negative ions exist in a ratio together
 * __Properties:__**
 * Determined by the number of electrons transferred from the metal atom to the nonmetal

Physical Properties: -Melting point, boiling point, and hardness.


 * __Electrolyte__** - Ionic compound whose aqueous solution conducts an electric current

http://web.fccj.org/~ethall/2045/lattice%20energy.htm
 * __Lattice Energy__** Energy required to separate 1 mol of the ions of an ionic compound.

http://www.3dchem.com/inorganicmolecule.asp?id=470
 * __Crystal Lattice__** 3 dimensional geometric arrangement of particles each positive ion is surrounded by negative ions and vice versa. It varies in shape due to the sizes and relative numbers of the ions bonded.

-Value is affected by the charge of the ion KING: Al +3 O -2= Al2 O3 __**Textbook Assignment: Read Section 7.2 Do #’s 16, 17 p. 217; # 63, 65, 67, 70, 71, 73, 74, 75 p. 233 # 100, 101 p. 234**__
 * __What affects the strength?__**- Lattice energy is related to the size of the ions bonded. Smaller ions have greater lattice energy
 * Larger positive/negative charged have greater lattice energy

Using the Periodic Table to Assign Ionic Charges(Oxidation Numbers)



Naming and Writing Ionic Formulas

__NO PREFIXES!__
 * Binary Ionic** __1 metal and 1 nonmetal__

__Always cation(typically a metal); anion (typically a non-metal) ending in –ide.__ __Know when to go **Roman!**__

__Ex. NaCl - sodium chloride__

__CaF2 - calcium fluoride__

__AlBr­3 - Aluminum bromide__

__Magnesium chloride Mg2+ Cl 1- MgCl 2__ __Potassium oxide K1+ O 2- K2O__ __Calcium sulfide Ca2+ S2- CaS__

//Polyatomic Ions:// An ion made up two or more atoms bonded together that acts as a single unit with a net charge


 * Ionic compounds that contain polyatomic ions_**

"Sulfur called carbon crazy" : -2

-ite NItrite NO2 -1 -ate Nitrate NO3 -1 If skinny "i" ATE an O, it gets "a"

Hydrox Cookies minus the top biscuit = Hydoxide!

ClO ^- __Hypo__chlorite (Hypo stands for UNDER) ClO2^- Chlo__rite__ ClO3^- Chlor__ate__ ClO4^- __Per__chlorate (Per is OVER like a Periscope on a submarine)


 * NOOO** ^1- (You'll cost me a dollar unless you call me at the **NIGHT RATE**!!)

//Code 1// CHO232 : Officer Acetate got to the scene and found one dead...now he has to report that there's been a population change of CHO 232^**-1 !** C2H3O2^1-

Ex. CuSO4 copper(II) sulfate

CuSO3 copper(II) sulfite

Magnesium nitrate Mg2+ NO31-

Mg(NO3)2

Ammonium phosphate NH4 1+ PO4 3-

(NH4)3PO4


 * Textbook Assignment: Read Section 7.3 Do #’s 36, 37, 38, 39 p. 224; 81-86 p. 233; #102, 111 p. 234 + worksheets as assigned.**

The noble metals : metals that never fade, such as gold or platinum

Metallic bonding - based on electronic structure, the attraction between the protons of the nucleus and the electrons flowing between them (in the electron sea model) is what causes the bond

Electron sea model - the electrons are loosely held with the matrix of metallic ions and can flow within like a sea http://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/Graphics-Geol/rockmin/mtlbond.gif

Delocalized electrons - The electrons flow, they are free to move, and are out of their location (hence why its called delocalized).

Ex. Na

Properties:

Alloys - a mixture of different elements that have metallic properties

Ex. Steel - combination of carbon and iron Brass - Copper and Zinc Bronze - Iron and copper (and some tin)


 * Textbook Assignment: Read Section 7.4 Do # 44 p. 228; # 87, 91, 96, 98, 113 pp. 233-234; #**


 * COVALENT BONDING**

COVALENT BONDING
 * Covalent bond: A chemical bond that results sharing valence electrons**

Molecule: Formed when two or more atoms bond covalently

Molecular formulas(examples)
 * __Molecules/Molecular compounds__** : Two or more non-metals chemically combined.

Diatomic Elements: Elements that come in pairs, covalently bonded together. (There are 7. Hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and fluorine)
 * HONClBrIF or ClIF BrOHN (Which apparently sounds somewhat like James Bond...)
 * 6 of the 7 diatomic elements form the shape of a 7 and points to hydrogen

The Lewis structures show the different numbers of bonds. The maximum number is three bonds (no quadruple bonds or anything).

As you can see from the picture, these two nitrogen atoms have covalently bonded together, because they need to get stable. They both now "possess" eight valence electrons, and according to the octet rule, it means they are stable.

Below are examples of common covalent bonds. *One of these are MOLECULES. Molecules are only associtated H­­2O Water NH3Ammonia C2H6O – EthylAlcohol ( Ethanol) C5H12 - Pentane __Structural Formulas__ __Condensed Molecular Formulas__ Ex.CH3(CH2)3CH3- pentane


 * __Textbook Assignment #1__** Read Section 8.1. Do #’s 1-4 p. 244, # 10, 13 p. 247; # 78, 83, 84, 86 p. 274.

__Naming Binary Molecular Compounds__


 * __Binary Molecular__** 2 non-metals

Use Prefixes : 1- mono 2- di 3 –tri 4- tetra 5- penta 6-hexa 7- hepta

8 - octa 9- nona 10- deca

Ex. CO- carbon monoxide PCl3- phosphorus trichloride N2O- dinitrogen monoxide = Acids : Molecular compounds that contain an ionizable hydrogen ion(H+) = HX- binary acidscontain H and one other element.

HXO- oxy acidscontain H, oxygen and one other element.

BinaryAcids!!!!!!!

Hydro - root word - icacid
HCl-hydrochloric acid HBr-hydrobromic acid H2Shydrosulfuric acid HI---hydroiodic acid Oxy acids!!!!!! “I took a b ite and became nause ous .” “I ate it and became s ick .”

H2SO4 sulfuric acid- ate>>> -ic HNO3 nitric acid H3PO4phosphoric acid HNO2nitrous acid-ite>>>>-ous HClOhypochlorous acid H2SO3sulfurous acid **Textbook Assignment #2 Read Section 8.2 Do #’s 19-30, p. 251 # 35,36, p. 252, #92-96, p. 274**

**__Molecular Structures and Intermolecular Attractions__**


 * __Review of Ionic and covalent bonding via an animation__**

http://www.chem.iastate.edu/group/Greenbowe/sections/projectfolder/flashfiles/reaction/bonding1.html


 * __Lewis Structures and IM Forces__**


 * __Single, Double and Triple Covalent Bonds__**

Generally occurs between 2 or more non-metal atoms which share valence electrons in order to achieve a Noble gas configuration. (usually 8 electrons).Hence the Octet Rule.

Primo Example : HONClBrIF

http://crescentok.com/staff/jaskew/isr/tigerchem/oxidation/diatomic.gif Bonding Tendencies Carbon (C) tends to bond 4 times. Nitrogen (N) tends to bond 3 times. Oxygen (O) tends to bond 2 times. Halogens (F, Cl, Br, I) bond 1 time. Hydrogen (H) Bonds 1 time ONLY!!!!!

Lewis Structures

Rules p 254

1. Draw a "skeleton" attaching all atoms with single covalent bonds. 2. Count all valence electrons. 3. Subtract 2 electrons for each single covalent bond in the skeleton. 4. Distribute remaining electrons as non-bonding pairs. Look for double and triple bonds.

Ex. NH3 http://www.uam.es/departamentos/ciencias/qfa/DAM/bolas/NH3/Lewis-NH3.jpg

Cl2CO http://www.chem.purdue.edu/courses/chm11100.scn/chm111_mol_str_lab/structurefiles/art/phosgene.gif

HCOOH http://www.chem.uky.edu/courses/che105/105321f5.gif

SO32- http://img131.imageshack.us/i/sulfatewi1.png/sr=1

BF3 http://www.vias.org/genchem/img/valel_bf3.png

BeF2  http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/3311/3391094/imag0905/AAAVJKD0.GIF NO http://www.mikeblaber.org/oldwine/chm1045/notes/Bonding/Except/IMG00013.GIF

NO21- http://www.chemistry.mcmaster.ca/courses/1e3/tutorial/no2-.gif

Resonance

Expanded Octets

Primo Example:

Non-metal Halides

PCl5

SF6


 * __Molecular Geometry and Bond Angles__**

__VSEPR__- Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory

__Central atom with 4 attachments.__


 * Tetrahedral**- A central atom with four bonding atoms on the corners of the central atom

Ex. METHANE!

__Central atom with 3 attachments and 1 nonbonding pair.__


 * Pyrimidal**

Ex.AMMONIA!

__Central atom with 2 attachments and 2 nonbonding pairs.__


 * Bent**

Ex.DIHYDROGEN MONOXIDE! http://www.flickr.com/photos/tula_7755/5544750551/

__Central atom with 3 attachments.__


 * Trigonal Planar**

Ex.BORON TRICHLORIDE!

__Central atom with 2 attachments.__


 * Linear**

Ex.CARBON DIOXIDE!

http://media.photobucket.com/image/Exclamation+point+/awesomeWALSTO/exclamation-point-for-kiddo-t.jpg


 * Expanded Octet Shapes**

PCl5

SF6


 * Textbook Assignment #3 : Read Section 8.3, 8.4 Do #’s 44-46 p. 258; #’s 47,48,52, 54 p. 260; # 63, 64, 67(skip hybrid orbitals) p. 264, # 101, 102, 108, 111, 112(skip hybrid orbitals), 126 pp 274-276.**


 * __Molecular Polarity__**

A molecule is considered polar if it has a permanent positive region and a permanent negative region.Molecules that are polar are often called dipoles.

In order to be polar a molecule must have polar bonds (eg ∆ EN > 0.3 but < 1.7) and be asymmetrica l. That is the effect of the unequal sharing of electrons can’t be cancelled by symmetry.

-Symmetry cancels polarity when the atoms are the same... Different atoms with different electronegativity do not cancel polarity, even if the molecule is symmetrical.

View this site and the animation found there for further explanations: [] Ex. http://www.3dchem.com/imagesofmolecules/water.jpg

-Water is very polar.... Oxygen's electronegativity is greater than hydrogen's.

-There must be a difference in electronegativity between the atoms.

General rule- bent and pyrimidal molecules are generally polar.


 * __Intermolecular Attractions__**

These are attractions between molecules. are weaker than the intramolecular attractions better know as covalent bonds that are within a molecule.

Types

1.) Dispersion forces (London) or induced dipole.

2.) Dipole-dipole forces

3.) Hydrogen Bonds (The Mighty Mice)

Textbook Assignment # 4 Read Section 8.5 Do #’s 74, 75, 76, 114, 118, 119, 120, 121, 127, 128 138-140


 * __Lewis Structure Exceptions:__**


 * 1.) Electron Deficient Molecule**
 * 2.) Odd # of Electrons**
 * 3.) More than and Octet**

"Watch out for BBe's B- Boron Be- Berrylium http://vstudyplace.ccnmtl.columbia.edu/w/images/6/63/YellowJacket.gif

Examples:

vias.org mikeblaber.org
 * BF3**
 * BeF2**

__**Resonance:**__ The moving of electrons to other location -Increases Stability

The story of Benzene: Kekulé was half asleep when he dreamt of a snake biting its own tail, creating the hexagon shape instead of the chain.

Benzene lewis structure (C6H6) Kekulé skaa.co.cc edinformatics.com

__**Intermolecular Attraction**__

-Weaker than intramolecular attractions AKA covalent bonds

-caused by fluctuations in the electron field - These occur **between all** molecules, but are the only force between non-polar molecules
 * Dispersion forces (London) or induced dipole**

-Can shift to interfere with other clouds around it - Form partial partial positives, and partial partial negatives - Dispersion forces are **greater** in larger molecules

= - = = http://www.chem.purdue.edu/gchelp/liquids/disperse.html = http://www.sparknotes.com/testprep/books/sat2/chemistry/chapter5section1.rhtml


 * Dipole-dipole forces**
 * -**The positive region of one polar molecule attracts the negative region of another polar molecule

-Therefore, very strong H-bonds form __between__ the molecules.
 * Hydrogen Bonds**
 * -**If a tiny H is attached to F, O, or N in a molecule, huge polarities are created.

http://thestephenation.blogspot.com/2009/09/hydrogen-bonding.html

note: DO NOT confuse with hydrogen //bombs//

//http://www.neshamah.net/2010/09/logbook-from-bikini-atoll.html// V.P. and L.S.

=Balancing Chemical Equations=

You must have an equal number of each type of atom on either side of the equation. The equation must obey the Law of Conservation of Mass.
 * Law of Conservation of Mass: Matter is neither created or destroyed. **

**Reactants ---Yield---> Products**
H2 +O2 -> H2O

mikeblaber.org Δ - Heat is applied to the reactants. ↓ - A precipitate form. ↑ - <span style="font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: small; line-height: 15px;">A gas forms. <span style="font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: small; line-height: 15px;">( // l // ) - A chemical is in the liquid state. (aq) - A chemical is dissolved in water. <span style="font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: small; line-height: 15px;">⇄ - A reversible reaction occurs.

Techniques:
 * Save H then O till last.
 * Eliminate fractions or decimals by multiplication.
 * CO3's almost always become CO2's in reactions

Example: Magnesium reacts with oxygen gas to form magnesium oxide.

2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2 MgO(s)

Physical state symbols: gas(g) liquid(l) solid(s) aqueous(aq)

Watch out for Diatomic elements (elements that occur in pairs)

The Magic 7: H2, O2, N2, Cl2, Br2, I2, F2

Honclbrif HONClBrIF ClIF BrOHN

Ever play Battleship? Try this version:[| http://www.quia.com/ba/22228.html]

Read Section 9.1 Do #’s 1-3 p. 284. 4-6, p. 287, 12, 13p. 288, 62, 64-66, 68, 71-75 p. 312.


 * Precipitate: Anything that falls out of a solution**

Types of Chemical Reactions
A + B → AB
 * Synthesis** (also known as Direct Combination) **: Two or more reactants combine to form one.**

AB → A + B (Normally requires heat)
 * Decomposition: One reactant breaks down into two or more products.**

A + BX → AX + B
 * Single Replacement: With one element and a compound, the element (if it has the power) can replace part of the compound.**

Double Replacement: When two ionic compounds dissolved in water, the front two elements switch to make two new compounds XY + AB → AY + XB

CxHy + O2 → CO2 + H20
 * Combustion: When the reactant is exposed to oxygen (through burning)**

Think you know your stuff?

Try this quiz : http://www.quia.com/quiz/374715.html?AP_rand=120891224

Read Section 9.2 plus pp 299-302 Do #’s 14-17 p. 291, 18-19 p. 292, 21-24, p. 295, 25- 28, p. 297, # 35- 39, p. 302 – Just chemical equations, 80, 81, 82, 85, 86-88, 100, 107, 112, 126, 128, 130, 133 pp 312-315.

The Mole - Its like a dozen only bigger

<span style="font-family: verdana,geneva,lucida,arial,helvetica,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">A mole is an an animal that burrows in the ground, <span style="font-family: verdana,geneva,lucida,arial,helvetica,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">Or the spot on your chin that you gotta shave around. <span style="font-family: verdana,geneva,lucida,arial,helvetica,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">But there's another kind of mole of interest to me, <span style="font-family: verdana,geneva,lucida,arial,helvetica,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">That's the kind of mole they use in chemistry.

Atomic Mass and the Mole

http://www.webqc.org/mmcalc.php - molar mass calculator

Atomic Mass: The average of all naturally occurring isotopes. (Recall Isotopic Calculations)

Ex. 1 atom Na = 22.98977 amu’s

Carbon-12 C – 12 has a mass of exactly 12.000000…. amu’s All other atoms are compared to C-12. In fact 1 amu is defined to be 1/12 of a C- 12 atom.

Avogadro’s Number and the Mole Mole Examples/Jokes 1 mol = 6.02 X 10 23 602,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 602 sextillion

<span style="font-family: verdana,geneva,lucida,arial,helvetica,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">Suppose a mole of marshmallows fell upon the planet, <span style="font-family: verdana,geneva,lucida,arial,helvetica,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">Over each square inch of land and sea, think that you could stand <span style="font-family: verdana,geneva,lucida,arial,helvetica,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">it?That layer would be twelve miles high and of course block out the sun, <span style="font-family: verdana,geneva,lucida,arial,helvetica,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">We're talking close to five million trillion tons.

Celebrate Mole Day 6:02 am – 6:02 pm 10/23 http://www.moleday.org/htdocs/gifs/polo98.gif

Textbook Assignment #1 Read Section 10.1 Do #’s 1-4 p. 323, # 12 p. 324, # 92-94, 99 p. 358,

Mole ← → Gram conversions

Examples

1 mol Na atoms = 6.02 x 10 23 atoms 1 mol Na Atoms = 22.98977 grams

1 mol equals an atom’s atomic mass in grams.

Si – 28 27.977 amu’s = 1 atom.

10.0 g --→ moles?

10.0 g x 1 mol/ 27.977 g = 0.357 mols Si x 6.02 x 10 23 atoms/ 1 mol = 2.15 x 10 23 atoms.

A mole is similar to a dozen – For example:

.333 dozen donuts .333 doz x 12 donuts/dozen = 4 donuts

Still confused? Check out this explanation:

http://www.screencast.com/users/mwilliams536/folders/Jing/media/bef3ed5b-9c12-4e1f-847c-547a8a31b046

Textbook Assignment #2 Read Sections 10.2, 10.3 Do #’s 19 a, c, 20 a, c, e, p. 331, #28 p. 332, #’s 43, 46, p. 339, # 103, 104, 108, 109, 112, 115, 117, 118, 128, 131, 132, 135, 136, 145, 148, 150 pp 358-360.

Percent Composition from Formulas

Cinnabar HgS mercury ore

% of Hg in HgS 200.6 g Hg + 32.1 g S = 232.7 g total

200.6g Hg/ 232.7 total g x 100 = 86.2 % 13.8 % S

Milk of Magnesia Mg(OH)2

% of Mg in Mg (OH)2

24.3 g Mg % Mg = 24.3g Mg/58.3 total g x 100 = 41.7 % Mg 32.0 g O 2.0 g H total = 58.3 g

Simplest Formula from Chemical Analysis

= //**Hydrate example!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!:) :) :)**// =

<span style="color: #ff0094; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Na2CrO4. X H2O is experimentally determined to contain 32. 1 % water. Find X.

<span style="color: #7ca0f3; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">X = mols H2O/mols Na2CrO4

Assume 100 g of hydrate

32.1 g H2O/ 18.0 g/mol = 1.78 mols

67.9 g Na2CrO4/ 162 g/mol = .419 mols

X= 1.78 mols/.419 mols = 4.25 ⇒ 4 = X=4

Molecular vs Empirical formulas

A molecular compound contains 92.3% carbon and 7.7% hydrogen by mass.

a.) Find its empirical(simplest) formula. The simplest whole # ratio of atoms in a compound.

Assume 100g of compound

92.3 g C/12.0 g/mol = 7.69 mols C

7.7 g H/1.0 g/mol = 7.7 mols H

7.7:7.69 ⇒ 1:1 So emp. Formula is CH

b.) If 0.050 mol of this compound has a mass of 3.90 g, what is its molecular formula?

Emp. Formula is CH Molecular formula could be CH,C2H2,C3H3,C4H4 etc….

Molar mass = 3.90g/.050mol = 78 g/mol

CH???? = 78 g/mol Noooo!!!! It equals 13 g/mol C2H2 ???? = 78 g/mol Noooo!!!! It equals 26 g/mol

Divide 78 by 13 78/13 = 6 so the molecular formula is C6H6 yessss!!!!

Textbook Assignment # 3 Read Sections 10.4, 10.5 Do #’s 68, 69, 73 p. 350, #’s 159, 161, 64, 166, 172, 173, 173, 175, 179, 180, 181, 185, 187, 194, 196, 204, 105, 211 pp 361-363.

Online Quizzes

EWW!!---↓
http://chemunder.chemistry.ohio-state.edu/under/chemed/qbank/quiz/bank2.htm

Try a few on empirical formula, % composition, Avogadro’s number and the mole.

<span style="color: #fa1e1e; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif;">Colorful letters made by GRK! ™®©
__ Reaction Stoichiometry __ Using Balanced Equations to Make Predictions Example: View the video found here: [|mol to mol conversion]
 * __Mol-mol relationships__**

Example: View the video found here: [|mass to mols]
 * __Mol-mass relationships__**

Example: View the video found here: [|Mass to mass calculation]
 * __Mass-mass relationships__**

Textbook Assignment # 1 Read Section 11.1-11.2, Do #2 p. 371; #9, p. 372; # 12 p. 375; # 14 p. 376; # 16 p. 377; # 21, 22 p. 378; # 50, 51, 53, 59, 60, 62, 64, 66, 69, 70 pp 392-394.


 * __Limiting Reactants and Theoretical Yield/% Yield__**

Support : Go to the following website for examples and explanations: [|Limiting and Excess Reagents]

Example : View the video found here: [|Limiting reagent. Finding theoretical yield and the dreaded amount leftover!]

Quizzes : Try these on for size: [|Matching quiz to see if you know the terminology.]

[|Multiple Choice]

Extra Quizzes: [|Try the following here: Stoichiometry - Mole to Mole Problems, Mole-mass Stoichiometry Problems, Mass-mass Stochiometry Problems, Limiting Reagent, Percent Yield, Percent Yield with Limiting Reagents]

Textbook assignment # 2 Read section 11.3-11.4 Do #’s 23, 24 p. 383; # 27 p. 384; # 34, 35 p. 388; # 75, 77, 79, 81, 89, 90, 94, 103, 109, 110, 111a, c, 113 pp 394-397.

__GASES__

Gas

Check out the animation: [|Gases under pressure.] http://www.universetoday.com/16338/the-sun/ How is a gas different from a solid or liquid? List characteristics of gases. - They don't stick together; non-bonding. (Only intermolecular forces) -They are in constant, random motion. -Greatest motion within particles. -Usually non-polar. (No dipole-dipole forces!!!) -Low boiling point. -Low density. -No defined shape. -Can be compressed or expanded. Solids and liquids can't do this! -Can be diffused through each other.
 * || [[image:file:///Users/mwilliams/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image002.png width="299" height="242"]] ||
 * || [[image:file:///Users/mwilliams/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image002.png width="299" height="242"]] ||

Check out this video: è


 * __Measurements of Gases__**


 * __4 Variables that affect gases__**

Pressure(P)- force/area... measured in psi (pounds per square inch)- sea level 14.7 psi, 14.7 psi= 101.3 K Pa (Kilo-pascals)= 1.013 bars= 1 atm (atmosphere) -Pressure decreases as you move farther above sea level.

Torricelli- invented barometer. X mm of Hg = X torr

Volume(V)- usually expressed in liters

Amount(n)- number of moles

Temperature(T)- always expressed in Kelvin (K)... K= degrees Celsius+273.15


 * __ Kinetic Theory __**

Tenets p 403

K.E.= 1/2 mass X velocity^2

AT ANY GIVEN TEMPERATURE ALL GASES HAVE THE SAME K.E. ON AVERAGE! <- Balloon at normal temperature.

<--- Deflated balloon after days of air pressure loss... And a very sad bear.

Gas particles are not attracted to each other. They also bounce forever and continue to move at all times. Particle collisions are "perfectly elastic". Which equals 740 Torr. Ptot = P1 + P2 + P3 +….. Or PA = XA x Ptot Where XA = the mol fraction of A
 * __ Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures __**

Subtracting vapor pressure of water when finding the pressure of a gas collected over water.

Textbook Assignment #1 Read Section 12.1 Do #’s 4, 5, 7 p. 409, # 39, 45, 47, 49, 50 p. 434.

__ THE IDEAL GAS LAWS __ Boyle’s Law:

P1V1 = P2V2

Sketch graph http://reich-chemistry.wikispaces.com/file/view/boyles_law.jpg/34105463/boyles_law.jpg

Charles Law:

V1/T1 = V2/T2

Sketch graph: http://reich-chemistry.wikispaces.com/file/view/chfa_02_img0351.jpg/34121593/chfa_02_img0351.jpg

Avogadro’s Law

V1/n1 = V2/n2

Sketch graph: http://crescentok.com/staff/jaskew/isr/tigerchem/gas_laws/gasavo.gif

Gay- Lussac’s Law

P1/T1 = P2/T2

Sketch graph http://cfbt-us.com/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2010/04/gay-lussacs_law.jpg

The Combined gas law and the value for “R” for an ideal gas. = VP, LS and KO =

Textbook Assignment # 2 Read Section 13.1 Do #’s 1, 2, 3 p. 443, 4, 6 p. 446, 8, 10 p. 448, 11, 12, 13 p. 450, # 18 p. 451, # 55, 57, 58, 60 p. 468.

**__IDEAL GAS LAW__**

PV = nRT One variable calculations.

Using Ideal gas law to find MM and Density.

Textbook Assignment #3: Read Section 13.2 Do #’s 20, 21, 24, 25 p. 453, #’s 26, 28, 30, p. 455, #36 p. 459, # 65, 67, 68, 70, 72, 75, 76, 93, 100 pp 468-470.

Relevant Reading Article on SF6

Demos: Tank of Doom/Flames of Gehenna


 * __ Stoichiometry of gaseous reactions __**

__Volume-Volume__

Problems can be solved in the same way as mol-mol problems IF temperature and pressure are constant.

__Mass – Volume__ Use molar volume (22.4 L/mol) if the conditions are at STP.

If not use ideal gas law to find n (mols) and then mass (g).

Textbook Assignment # 4: Read Section 13.3 Do #’s 38, 41 p. 461, #’s 42, 44, 45 p. 463, # 82, 84, 87, 89, 90, 103, 108, 110 b, d, f, 112, pp 469-471